izinsimbi zokubhala

Izinto eziyinhloko ezisetshenziselwa ukubhala ziyimikhiqizo yemvelo yemvelo. Ezikhathini zasendulo, amaqabunga omnqumo nesundu namagxolo kwakusetshenziswa emazweni aseMedithera. E-China, lawa kwakungamapulangwe kanye neziqu ze-bamboo ezisikiwe, futhi emazweni ase-Asia - amagxolo e-birch. Ezinye izinto zokubhala ezisetshenziswa kakhulu zisetshenziswa, kuhlanganise nelineni netshe eRoma. Isikhumbuzo, amatshe ethuna kanye nemibhalo yezenkolo iqoshwe emabula. EMesophothamiya ngaleso sikhathi, izibhebhe zobumba zazithandwa kakhulu. Thola ukuthi amathuluzi okubhala aguquke kanjani ngokuhamba kwesikhathi esihlokweni esingezansi. 

ezikhathini zasendulo Izinto eziyinhloko ezisetshenziselwa izinjongo zokubhala ziyimikhiqizo yemvelo yemvelo. Emandulo, amaqabunga omnqumo namasundu namagxolo (kuhlanganise nezihlahla ze-linden ne-elm) zazisetshenziswa emazweni aseMedithera. E-China, babenjalo izimpawu zokhuni i ama-bamboo stalksnakwamanye amazwe ase-Asia igxolo le-birch.

Okuhlukahlukene, okujwayelekile izinto zokubhala esetshenziswa, phakathi kwabanye eRoma babe ukhanvasi i ngamatshe. Isikhumbuzo, amatshe ethuna kanye nemibhalo yezenkolo iqoshwe emabula. EMesophothamiya, ethandwa kakhulu phakathi nalesi sikhathi kwaba izibhebhe zobumba. Ngakolunye uhlangothi, eGreece, kwakubhalwe phansi amagobolondo obumba.

Amathuluzi okubhala nazo zavela ngokuhamba kwesikhathi. Ukusetshenziswa kwazo kwakuncike ezintweni ezazisetshenziswa ngaleso sikhathi. Ekuqaleni kwakuvame ukusetshenziswa izinto eziqinile, ngakho imibhalo kwakudingeka iqoshwe, inyandwe noma igxivizwe. Isetshenziselwa ukukhanga ematsheni itshiseli, i-stylus yokuqopha ngensimbikanye nomoba osikwe ngokunganaki wokufaka izimpawu ezibhebheni zobumba. Okwezinto ezithambile (i-papyrus, ilineni, isikhumba, bese kuba nephepha) kwakusetshenziswa ngokulandelana: umhlanga, ibhulashi, nepeni.

1. Uyinki ophindwe kabili kusukela esikhathini seRoma lasendulo

emandulo - iminyaka ephakathi Kwakudingekile ukuba kubhalwe ezintweni ezithambile uyinki (eyodwa). Umbala omnyama kwakuwumbala osetshenziswa kakhulu, kodwa o-inki abanemibala babuye bakhiqizwa - iningi labo elibomvu, kodwa futhi eliluhlaza, okwesibhakabhaka, eliphuzi noma elimhlophe. Ayesetshenziswa ezihlokweni noma kuma-initials emibhalo yesandla noma kumasignesha ezicukuthwane. Upende wegolide nesiliva wawuvame ukusetshenziselwa imibhalo yenani.

Emandulo naseNkathini Ephakathi, inki ye-carbon yayisetshenziswa kakhulu. Yenziwe ngokuhlanganisa i-carbon black kanye ne-binder (ngokuvamile i-resin, kodwa ne-gum arabic noma uju) ukuze kwakheke impushana eyayincibilika emanzini lapho ihloselwe ukusetshenziswa. Olunye uhlobo lubizwa i-hibir ewuketshezi, eyenziwe ngobhontshisi we-jelly. Usawoti, i-binder kanye nobhiya noma uviniga wewayini kwakufakwa kuwo. Oyinki bakamuva (okuthiwa uyinki) babengaqinile kangako futhi babengacekela phansi isikhumba noma iphepha ngenxa yokugqwala kwabo.

XNUMXrd millennium BC I-Papirus yaziwa eGibhithe lasendulo (2). Imibhalo emidala kunayo yonke egcinwe kuyi-papyrus ihlehlela emuva cishe ku-2600 BC. Cishe ngekhulu lesi-XNUMX BC, i-papyrus yafinyelela eGreece, futhi cishe ngekhulu lesi-XNUMX BC yavela eRoma. I-papyrus yathandwa kakhulu ngenkathi yamaGreki.

Isikhungo esikhulu sokukhiqizwa kwe-papyrus kwakuyi-Alexandria yaseGibhithe kusukela ngekhulu lesi-XNUMX BC, ukusuka lapho yasatshalaliswa kwamanye amazwe aseMedithera. Kwakuyindaba eyinhloko ekudalweni kwezincwadi nemibhalo (ngesimo semiqulu). Ukukhiqizwa kwe-papyrus e-Egypt kwaqhubeka kwaze kwaba sekhulwini lesi-XNUMX. EYurophu, i-papyrus yasetshenziswa isikhathi eside kakhulu, kwaze kwaba maphakathi nekhulu le-XNUMX, lapho kulungiswa imibhalo ehhovisi likapapa. Njengamanje, i-papyrus isetshenziswa kuphela ukwenza amakhophi anembe kakhulu emibhalo yasendulo ethengiswa njengezikhumbuzo.

3. U-Cai Lun esitembuni sokuposa saseShayina kusukela ngo-1962

VIII vpne - II vpne Ngokwemilando yamaShayina, iphepha yasungulwa eShayina nguCai Luna (3), ishansela enkantolo yoMbusi u-He Di wozalo lwakwaHan. Umabhalane wazama ngamagxolo esihlahla, usilika ngisho namanetha okudoba waze wathola indlela efanele (iphepha elenziwe ngezandla) esebenzisa usilika namanikiniki elineni.

Kodwa-ke, imiphumela yocwaningo lwemivubukulo ibonisa ukuthi iphepha lalazi ngaphambili, okungenani ngekhulu lesi-751 BC, ngakho-ke kungenzeka ukuthi uCai Lun wasungula indlela kuphela yokukhiqiza iphepha ngobuningi. Ngemva kweMpi yoMfula iTalas ngo-XNUMX, ama-Arabhu athatha abakhiqizi bamaphepha baseShayina, okwenza iphepha lidume emazweni ase-Arab. Iphepha lakhiqizwa kuye ngokutholakala kwezinto zokusetshenziswa - kuhlanganisa. i-hemp, izindwangu zelineni noma usilika. Wafika eYurophu ngeSpain enqotshwe ama-Arabs.

II wpne - VIII wne Ezikhathini zasendulo, i-papyrus yashintshwa kancane kancane ingilazi, ifaneleka ngokwengeziwe uhlobo olusha lwencwadi i-codex esiye yaba yiyo. Isikhumba (imembrane, isikhumba, i-charta parchment) yenziwe ngesikhumba sesilwane. Yayivele isetshenziswa ngaphambi kwenkathi yethu eGibhithe (Incwadi Yabafileyo yaseCairo), kodwa yayingasetshenziswa kakhulu lapho.

Nokho, kakade ekhulwini le-XNUMX, yancintisana ne-papyrus futhi yaba indaba eyinhloko yokubhala. Ngekhulu lesi-XNUMX, wafinyelela eFrankish Chancellery. Kwasabalala ngekhulu lesi-XNUMX, futhi kwangena emahhovisi opapa ngekhulu lesi-XNUMX. Indlela yokukhiqiza negama cishe kuhlotshaniswa nedolobha lamaGreki iPhergamoni, lapho isikhumba singasungulwanga, kodwa ukukhiqizwa kwayo kwathuthukiswa kakhulu.

kulungile IV wena Iqala ukuduma ngokubhala esikhumbeni (kamuva nasephepheni). uphaphe lwenyoni ngokuvamile wehla edadani noma amahansi. Ipeni kwakudingeka licijiswe kahle (lincane futhi licijile noma libe yisicaba) futhi libe ngemfoloko ekugcineni. Ama-Goose quill ayeyithuluzi lokubhala eliyinhloko kuze kube yikhulu lesi-XNUMX.

kudala - 1567 История ipensela ngokuvamile iqala emandulo. Igama lesiPolish livela kumthofu owawusetshenziswa ukuloba eGibhithe lasendulo, eGrisi naseRoma. Kuze kube sekhulwini le-1567, abadwebi baseYurophu babesebenzisa izinti zomthofu, ezinc, noma ezisiliva ukuze benze imidwebo empunga ekhanyayo eyaziwa ngokuthi amaphoyinti esiliva. Ngo-XNUMX, umSwiss, uKonrad Gesner, wachaza induku yokubhalela enomshini wokhuni encwadini yezinsalela. Eminyakeni emithathu ngaphambili, kwakutholakale i-graphite emsulwa eBorrowdale, eNgilandi, eyasheshe yasetshenziswa esikhundleni somthofu, kodwa igama elithi pensela lasala.

1636 Umsunguli waseJalimane UDaniel Schwenter wadala okwabeka isisekelo sezibaya zesimanje zemithombo. Kwakuwukuguqulwa okunekhono kwezixazululo ezisetshenziswe ngaphambili - ocezu lokhuni olunomphetho obukhali phakathi uphaphe lwenyoni lwalunoyinki. Ipeni lesiliva elinoyinki ngaphakathi, lama-franc angu-10, lachazwa okokuqala eParis ngabahambi ababili baseDutch ngo-1656.

1714 Unjiniyela waseBrithani uHenry Mill uthole ilungelo lobunikazi lokuklama idivayisi, okwakuyi-nucleus yakamuva eyathuthukiswa futhi umshini wokubhala othuthukisiwe.

1780-1828 INgisi USamuel Harrison wakha isibonelo sepeni lensimbi. Ngo-1803, umkhiqizi waseBrithani u-Wise waseLondon washintsha i-patent, kodwa ngenxa yezindleko eziphakeme zokukhiqiza, ayizange isetshenziswe kabanzi. Isimo sashintsha cishe ngo-1822, lapho ziqala ukukhiqizwa ngemishini ngenxa ye-Harrison efanayo eyakha i-prototype eminyakeni engu-42 ngaphambili. Ngo-1828, uWilliam Joseph Gillott, uWilliam Mitchell, noJames Stephen Perry bakha indlela yokukhiqiza ngobuningi ama-nibs aqinile, ashibhile (4). Ngenxa yabo, ngaphezu kwengxenye yamathiphu epeni akhiqizwa emhlabeni enziwa.

4. Izimpaphe ze-Gillot zekhulu leshumi nesishiyagalolunye

1858 I-Hymen Lipman inamandla ipensela enerabha ehlezi ekugcineni. Usomabhizinisi ogama lakhe linguJoseph Reckendorfer wabikezela ukuthi le nto esunguliwe izoba yimpumelelo futhi wathenga ilungelo lobunikazi ku-Lipman. Ngeshwa, ngo-1875 iNkantolo Ephakeme yase-US yalihoxisa leli lungelo lobunikazi, ngakho u-Reckendorfer akazange enze ingcebo ngalo.

1867 Kumdali wokusebenza imishini yokubhala I-American ibhekwa UChristopher Latham Sholes (5), owakha imodeli yakhe yokuqala yokusetshenziswa. Umshini ayakha wawunokhiye, iteyiphu efakwe inki, nensimbi evundlile enephepha phezu kwayo. Umshini waqalwa ngokucindezela amaphedali, ngoba uScholes wayesebenzisa idrayivu efana nemishini yokuthunga yangaleso sikhathi. I-Sholes yaqala ukukhiqizwa kwayo ngo-1873 ngokubambisana nemboni yezikhali yaseMelika i-Remington. Noma kunjalo, isakhiwo sekhibhodi ye-QWERTY esisetshenziswe kuze kube yilolu suku sakhiwe, esakhelwe ukugwema ukuvimba amafonti.

5. Ukuqoshwa kukaHenry Mill ngenguqulo yokuqala yomshini wokubhala awuklama.

1877 inelungelo lobunikazi ipensela mechanical ngesakhiwo esifana nesanamuhla - ngenduku egxilwe ezipontshini eziboshwe isiphethu.

6. Umfanekiso welungelo lobunikazi likaWaterman

1884 Amalungelo obunikazi okuqala avuliwe Ipeni lomthombo zanikezwa ekuqaleni kwawo-1830, kodwa zazingenakwenzeka - uyinki uphuma ngokushesha kakhulu noma awuzange uphume nhlobo. Ipeni lomthombo wesimanje njengoba silazi namuhla, elinoyinki olungisekayo, lasungulwa umenzeli womshwalense waseMelika u-Lewis Edson Waterman (6).

Umsunguli we-Waterman uthuthukise uhlelo "lokuphakela kwesiteshi" olwavimbela ukuvaleka kukayinki ngokulawula ukunikezwa kukayinki. Ngemva kweminyaka eyishumi, ipeni lapheleliswa uGeorge Parker wase-USA, owakha uhlelo oluqeda ama-blots, olusekelwe kwisixazululo esivimbela ukuzenzakalelayo. u-inki uvuza i-nib.

1908-29 U-Walter Sheaffer waseMelika ube ngowokuqala ukusebenzisa i-lever ohlangothini lwakhe ukugcwalisa ipeni - u-inki wawumuncwa ngaphakathi kwepeni nge-nib. Ngokushesha baqhamuke amaphampu ayinki enjolobaefakwe ngaphakathi kwepeni, futhi esikhundleni sengilazi cartridges. Ngo-1929, imboni yaseJalimane yasePelikan yasungula i-inki plunger.

1914 UJames Fields Smather wakha umshini wokubhala ohamba ngogesi. Imishini yokubhala kagesi yangena emakethe cishe ngo-1920.

1938 Umculi waseHungary kanye nentatheli u-László Bíró (7) usungula ipeni. Ngemva kokugqashuka kwempi, wabaleka ezweni lakubo waze wafika e-Argentina, lapho yena nomfowabo uGeorge (usokhemisi) bafeza ukusungulwa. Ukukhiqizwa kokuqala kwaqala phakathi nempi eBuenos Aires. Ngo-1944, u-Bíró wathengisa amasheya akhe komunye wabaninimasheya bakhe owaqala ukukhiqiza ngezinga elikhulu.

7. Laszlo Biro kanye Vinalazek yakhe

Iminyaka engu-40-50. Ikhulu lamashumi amabili Okokuqala isingatha bekuyizimpaphe eziguquliwe nje. Esikhundleni se-nib, ayefakwe uhlobo lwentambo lapho uyinki econsa khona. USidney Rosenthal wase-USA uthathwa njengoyise wokusungulwa. Ngo-1953, wahlanganisa i-cartridge ye-inki nentambo yoboya kanye nethiphu yokubhala. Wabiza wonke "umaka womlingo", okungukuthi ipeni lomaka lomlingo, ngoba yayivumela ukudweba cishe kunoma iyiphi indawo (8).

KULUNGILE. 1960-2011 Ukukhathazeka kwaseMelika i-IBM iyathuthuka uhlobo olusha lomshini wokubhala, w której czcionki osadzone na osobnych dźwigniach zastąpiono głowicą obrotową. W późniejszym okresie wypierały swoje mechaniczne odpowiedniki. Ostatnia generacja maszyn do pisania (około 1990 r.) miała już możliwość zapisywania i późniejszej edycji tekstu. Potem maszyny zostały wyparte przez komputery, wyposażone w edytory lub procesory tekstu i drukarki. Ostatnią fabrykę maszyn do pisania zamknięto w marcu 2011 roku w Indiach.

Izinhlobo zamathuluzi okubhala

I. Amathuluzi azimele - Zinomsebenzi ongokwemvelo ngomqondo wokuthi ukuphila kwazo okuwusizo kuhambisana nokuphila kwazo ngokomzimba.

1. Ngaphandle kokusebenzisa odayi. Izibonelo ezindala kunazo zonke ezaziwayo zokubhala ngaphandle kokusetshenziswa kwedayi zadalwa ngokusika indawo eyisicaba ngethuluzi eliqinile. Isibonelo yimibhalo yesiShayina ye-jiaguwen eqoshwe kumagobolondo ofudu. AmaSumer asendulo nabalandela ngemva kwawo, njengabaseBhabhiloni, babhala umbhalo wabo we-cuneiform ngokucindezela uthayela oluwunxantathu ezibhebheni zobumba ezithambile, benza izinhlamvu ezimise okukanxantathu.
2. Ngokusebenzisa udayi. Ifomu lokuqala le "pensela" kwakuyi-stylus eholayo eyayisetshenziswa amaRoma asendulo futhi ayeyisebenzisa ukubhala ngokhuni noma i-papyrus, eshiya imigqa emnyama lapho insimbi ethambile yayikhuhla phezulu. Amaningi «amapensela» esimanje anomgogodla ongenabuthi we-gray-black graphite exutshwe nobumba ngezilinganiso ezihlukene ukuze athole ukufana okuhlukile. Amathuluzi alula alolu hlobo ahlanganisa ushoki omhlophe noma amalahle amnyama, asetshenziswa abaculi namuhla. Lesi sigaba sihlanganisa namakhrayoni enziwe ngokhuni namakhrayoni we-wax, asetshenziswa kakhulu izingane. Isici esivamile salawa mathuluzi ukuthi ukusetshenziswa kwawo kuhlobene eduze nokuba khona kwawo ngokomzimba.

II. Amathuluzi asizayo - Lezi zidinga udayi owengeziwe ukuthi ulotshwe futhi ngeke usetshenziswe uma 'ungenalutho'.

1. izimpaphe

   a) Ukucwiliswa ngesenzo se-capillary. Ekuqaleni, amapeni ayenziwa ngokuqopha izinto zemvelo, okwakuthi, ngenxa yesenzo se-capillary, akwazi ukugcina inqolobane encane yokubhala uyinki. Lezi zindawo zokugcina amanzi, nokho, zazimancane futhi zazidinga ukuthi ipeni licwiliswe ku-inki yangaphandle ukuze ligcwaliswe kabusha. Okufanayo kuyiqiniso ngezinsimbi zokucwiliswa kwensimbi, nakuba ezinye izixazululo zikwazile ukubamba uyinki omningi kakhulu kunama-nibs emvelo.

   b) amapeni. Ahlanganisa i-nib assembly, i-inki yokugcina amanzi, kanye nendlu yangaphandle. Kuye ngomklamo wepeni, ithangi likayinki lingagcwaliswa kabusha ngokuqondile ngokuphoqelela kusukela ngaphandle, ngokumunca, noma ngokusebenzisa amakhatriji agcwaliswe kabusha alahlwayo. Izinhlobo ezithile zikayinki kuphela ezingasetshenziswa esibayeni somthombo ukugwema ukuvala indlela.

   c) Amapeni nomaka. Ipeni linomzimba neshubhu eligcwaliswe ngoyinki owugqinsi futhi ligcine ngepeni. Ibhola elinobubanzi obungaba ngu-1 mm lifakwa esibambi. Njengoba ubhala, ibhola ligoqa ephepheni, lihlukanise uyinki ngokulinganayo. Ibhola lihlezi esokhethi, elivumela ukuthi lijikeleze ngokukhululeka futhi livimbele ukuthi lingawi. Kunesikhala esincane phakathi kwebhola nesokhethi ukuze uyinki ukhiphe. Isikhala sincane kangangokuthi isenzo se-capillary sigcina uyinki ngaphakathi lapho ipeni lingasetshenziswa. Ipeni lomaka (futhi: umaka, umaka, umaka) wuhlobo lwepeni elinomgogodla onezimbotshana ofakwe uyinki. Ipeni liphinde libe nezimbotshana, livumela u-inki ukuthi aconsele kancane ebusweni bephepha noma enye imidiya.

2. Amapensela omshini

   Ngokungafani nokwakhiwa kokhuni okuvamile kwepensela elizungeze umgogodla oqinile wegraphite, ipensela eliwumshini liphakela ucezwana olunyakazayo lwegraphite ngesihloko salo.

3. Amabhulashi

   Isibonelo, izinhlamvu zesikripthi zesiShayina zibhalwa ngokwesiko ngebhulashi elithathwa njengelinikeza ukushaywa okumnandi, okubushelelezi. Ibhulashi lihlukile kunepeni ngokuthi, esikhundleni se-nib eqinile, ibhulashi linama-bristles athambile. Ama-bristles ahanjiswa ngobumnene ephepheni ngokucindezela okwanele. Ezinye izinkampani manje zikhiqiza "amapeni ebhulashi", okuthi kulokhu kufana nepeni lomthombo, elinendawo yokugcina inki yangaphakathi. 

Bheka futhi: