I-elemental aristocracy

Umugqa ngamunye wethebula le-periodic uphela ekugcineni. Eminyakeni engaphezudlwana nje kwekhulu edlule, ubukhona bawo kwakungacatshangwa. Khona-ke bamangaza umhlaba ngezakhiwo zabo zamakhemikhali, noma kunalokho ukungabikho kwabo. Ngisho nangemva kwesikhathi zavela zaba umphumela onengqondo wemithetho yemvelo. amagesi amahle.

Ngokuhamba kwesikhathi, "bangena esenzweni", futhi engxenyeni yesibili yekhulu leminyaka elidlule baqala ukuhlotshaniswa nezakhi ezincane ezihloniphekile. Ake siqale indaba yomphakathi osezingeni eliphezulu kanje:

Kudala…

… Kwakukhona inkosi.

INkosi Henry Cavendish (1731-1810) emdwebeni omdala.

Henry Cavendish wayengowesikhulu esiphezulu saseBrithani, kodwa wayenesithakazelo sokufunda izimfihlo zemvelo. Ngo-1766, wathola i-hydrogen, futhi eminyakeni eyishumi nesishiyagalolunye kamuva wenza ucwaningo lapho akwazi khona ukuthola enye into. Wayefuna ukuthola ukuthi umoya unazo yini ezinye izakhi ngaphandle komoya-mpilo nenitrogen osekwaziwa kakade. Wagcwalisa ishubhu lengilazi eligobile ngomoya, wacwilisa iziphetho zalo emikhunjini ye-mercury futhi wadlulisela ukukhishwa kukagesi phakathi kwazo. Izinhlansi zabangela ukuba i-nitrogen ihlangane nomoya-mpilo, futhi izinhlanganisela ze-asidi ezaba khona zamuncwa isixazululo se-alkali. Lapho ungekho umoya-mpilo, uCavendish wawufaka epayipini futhi waqhubeka nokuhlola kwaze kwaba yilapho yonke i-nitrogen ikhishwa. Ukuhlolwa kwathatha amasonto ambalwa, lapho umthamo wegesi epayipini wawulokhu uncipha njalo. Lapho i-nitrogen isiphelile, uCavendish wakhipha umoya-mpilo futhi wathola ukuthi ibhamuza lisekhona, alinganisela ukuthi lalikhona. ¹/₁₂₀ umthamo womoya wokuqala. INkosi ayizange ibuze ngesimo sezinsalela, ibheka umphumela njengephutha lokuhlangenwe nakho. Namuhla siyazi ukuthi wayesesondele kakhulu ekuvuleni i-argon, kodwa kwathatha iminyaka engaphezu kwekhulu ukuqeda lolu cwaningo.

imfihlakalo yelanga

Ukufiphala kwelanga bekulokhu kudonsela ukunaka kwabantu abajwayelekile kanye nososayensi. Ngo-August 18, 1868, izazi zezinkanyezi ezazibuka lesi senzakalo zaqala ukusebenzisa i-spectroscope (eyaklanywa esikhathini esingaphansi kweminyaka eyishumi edlule) ukuze zihlole ukugqama kwelanga, elibonakala ngokucacile ngediski elimnyama. IsiFulentshi Pierre Janssen ngale ndlela wabonisa ukuthi i-solar corona yakhiwa ngokuyinhloko i-hydrogen nezinye izakhi zomhlaba. Kodwa ngakusasa, ngenkathi ebuka iLanga futhi, wabona umugqa we-spectral owawungachazwa ngaphambili owawuseduze nomugqa ophuzi we-sodium. U-Janssen akakwazanga ukukubalula kunoma iyiphi into eyaziwa ngaleso sikhathi. Ukuqaphela okufanayo kwenziwa isazi sezinkanyezi esiyiNgisi Norman Locker. Ososayensi babeke imibono ehlukahlukene mayelana nengxenye engaqondakali yenkanyezi yethu. ULockyer wamqamba igama high energy laser, egameni likankulunkulu welanga wamaGreki uHelios. Nokho, ososayensi abaningi babekholelwa ukuthi umugqa ophuzi abawubona wawuyingxenye ye-hydrogen emazingeni okushisa aphakeme kakhulu enkanyezi. Ngo-1881, isazi sesayensi yemvelo sase-Italy kanye ne-meteorologist Luigi Palmieri wafunda amagesi entaba-mlilo eVesuvius esebenzisa i-spectroscope. Ku-spectrum yabo, uthole ibhande eliphuzi okuthiwa i-helium. Nokho, uPalmieri wayichaza ngokucacile imiphumela yokuhlola kwakhe, futhi abanye ososayensi abazange bakuqinisekise. Manje sesiyazi ukuthi i-helium itholakala emagesini entaba-mlilo, futhi kungenzeka ngempela ukuthi i-Italy yaba ngeyokuqala ukubona i-terrestrial helium spectrum.

Umfanekiso ovela ku-1901 obonisa izisetshenziswa zokuhlolwa kwe-Cavendish

Ivula endaweni yesithathu yedesimali

Ekuqaleni kweshumi leminyaka lokugcina lekhulu lesi-XNUMX, isazi sefiziksi samaNgisi Nkosi Rayleigh (UJohn William Strutt) wanquma ukunquma ngokunembile ukuminyana kwamagesi ahlukahlukene, okwenza kube nokwenzeka ukunquma ngokunembile ubuningi be-athomu yezakhi zabo. URayleigh wayengumhloli okhuthele, ngakho wathola amagesi emithonjeni ehlukahlukene ukuze abone ukungcola okwakhohlisa imiphumela. Wakwazi ukunciphisa iphutha lokuzimisela laba kumaphesenti alikhulu, okwakuncane kakhulu ngaleso sikhathi. Amagesi ahlaziyiwe abonise ukuthobela ukuminyana okunqunyiwe ngaphakathi kwephutha lokulinganisa. Lokhu akuzange kumangaze muntu, ngoba ukwakheka kwezinhlanganisela zamakhemikhali akuxhomekile emsuka wazo. Okuhlukile kwakuyi-nitrogen - kuphela eyayinokuminyana okuhlukile kuye ngendlela yokukhiqiza. I-nitrogen umkhathi (etholakala emoyeni ngemva kokuhlukana komoyampilo, umhwamuko wamanzi kanye ne-carbon dioxide) ibilokhu inzima kakhulu amakhemikhali (etholakala ngokubola kwezinhlanganisela zayo). Umehluko, ngokuxakile, wawungashintshi futhi wafinyelela cishe ku-0,1%. URayleigh, engakwazi ukuchaza lesi simo, waphendukela kwabanye ososayensi.

Usizo olunikezwa usokhemisi UWilliam Ramsay. Bobabili ososayensi baphetha ngokuthi okuwukuphela kwencazelo kwakuwukuba khona kwengxube yegesi esindayo kunitrogen etholakala emoyeni. Lapho behlangabezana nencazelo yokuhlolwa kweCavendish, bazizwa besendleleni efanele. Bakuphinda lokho kuhlola, kulokhu besebenzisa imishini yesimanje, futhi ngokushesha base benesampula yegesi engaziwa. Ukuhlaziywa kwe-Spectroscopic kubonise ukuthi ikhona ngokuhlukana nezinto ezaziwayo, futhi ezinye izifundo zibonise ukuthi ikhona njengama-athomu ahlukene. Kuze kube manje, amagesi anjalo awakaziwa (sino-O₂N₂, H₂), ngakho lokho futhi kwakusho ukuvula isici esisha. URayleigh noRamsay bazama ukumenza i-argon (IsiGreki = ukuvilapha) ukusabela nezinye izinto, kodwa kwanhlanga zimuka nomoya. Ukuze bathole izinga lokushisa lokufinqa kwayo, baphendukela kumuntu oyedwa emhlabeni ngaleso sikhathi owayenemishini efanele. Bekuyi UKarol Olszewski, uprofesa wamakhemikhali e-Jagiellonian University. U-Olshevsky waqina futhi waqiniswa i-argon, futhi wanquma neminye imingcele yayo yomzimba.

Umbiko kaRayleigh noRamsay ngo-August 1894 wabangela umsindo omkhulu. Ososayensi abakwazanga ukukholelwa ukuthi izizukulwane zabacwaningi ziye zadebeselela ingxenye engu-1% yomoya, ekhona eMhlabeni ngenani elikhulu kakhulu, ngokwesibonelo, isiliva. Ukuhlolwa kwabanye kuye kwaqinisekisa ukuba khona kwe-argon. Ukutholwa kubhekwe ngokufanelekile njengempumelelo enkulu kanye nokunqoba kokuhlolwa ngokucophelela (kwathiwa isici esisha sifihlwe endaweni yesithathu yedesimali). Kodwa-ke, akekho owayelindele ukuthi kuzoba ...

… Umndeni wonke wamagesi.

Iqembu le-Helium (inombolo ye-athomu phezulu, isisindo se-athomu ngezansi).

Ngisho nangaphambi kokuba umkhathi ucutshungulwe kahle, ngemva konyaka, uRamsay waba nesithakazelo esihlokweni sephephabhuku lesayensi yokwakheka komhlaba esasibika ngokukhululwa kwegesi ematsheni e-uranium lapho echayeke ku-asidi. U-Ramsay wazama futhi, wahlola igesi ewumphumela nge-spectroscope futhi wabona imigqa ye-spectral engajwayelekile. Ukubonisana ne UWilliam Crooks, uchwepheshe we-spectroscopy, waholela esiphethweni sokuthi sekuyisikhathi eside ifunwa eMhlabeni high energy laser. Manje siyazi ukuthi lokhu kungenye yemikhiqizo ebolile ye-uranium ne-thorium, equkethwe ku-ores yezakhi zemvelo ezinomsakazo. U-Ramsay uphinde wacela u-Olszewski ukuthi ancibilikise igesi entsha. Kodwa-ke, kulokhu imishini yayingakwazi ukufeza izinga lokushisa eliphansi ngokwanele, futhi i-helium ewuketshezi ayizange itholakale kuze kube ngu-1908.

I-Helium iphinde yaba igesi ye-monatomic futhi engasebenzi, njenge-argon. Izakhiwo zazo zombili izakhi azizange zingene kunoma yimuphi umndeni wetafula lezikhathi futhi kwanqunywa ukuba kudalwe iqembu elihlukile. [helowce_uklad] U-Ramsay ufinyelele esiphethweni sokuthi kukhona izikhala kuwo, kanye nozakwabo. Morrisem Traversem waqala ucwaningo olwengeziwe. Ngokukhipha umoya owuketshezi, osokhemisi bathola amanye amagesi amathathu ngo-1898: neon (gr. = entsha), ikriptoni (gr. = skryty) i xenon (isiGreki = angaphandle). Zonke, kanye ne-helium, zikhona emoyeni ngamanani amancane, amancane kakhulu kune-argon. I-passivity yamakhemikhali yezakhi ezintsha yenze abacwaningi bazinikeza igama elivamile. amagesi amahle. 

Ngemva kwemizamo engaphumelelanga yokuhlukana nomoya, kwatholakala enye i-helium njengomkhiqizo wokuguqulwa kwemisebe. Ngo-1900 UFrederick Dorn Oraz U-Andre-Louis Debirn baqaphela ukukhululwa kwegesi (emanation, njengoba basho ngaleso sikhathi) ku-radium, abayibiza iradoni. Ngokushesha kwaqaphela ukuthi i-emanations iphinde ikhiphe i-thorium ne-actinium (i-thoron ne-actinon). Ramsay futhi UFrederick Soddy bafakazele ukuthi bayingxenye eyodwa futhi bayigesi ehloniphekile elandelayo abayiqambe igama i-niton (isiLatini = ukukhanya ngoba amasampula egesi akhanya ebumnyameni). Ngo-1923, i-nithon ekugcineni yaba i-radon, ebizwa ngegama le-isotope ehlala isikhathi eside kunawo wonke.

Okokugcina kokufakwa kwe-helium okuqedela ithebula le-periodic langempela kwatholakala ngo-2006 elabhorethri yenuzi yaseRussia eDubna. Igama, elivunyiwe eminyakeni eyishumi kamuva, Oganesson, ngokuhlonipha isazi sefiziksi yenuzi saseRussia Yuri Oganesyan. Okuwukuphela kwento eyaziwayo nge-elementi entsha ukuthi inzima kakhulu eyaziwa kuze kube manje nokuthi kutholwe ama-nuclei ambalwa aphile isikhathi esingaphansi kwe-millisecond.

Ukungahlangani kahle kwamakhemikhali

Ukukholelwa ku-chemical passivity ye-helium kwawa ngo-1962 lapho Neil Bartlett uthole inhlanganisela yefomula Xe [PtF₆]. Amakhemikhali e-xenon compounds namuhla abanzi kakhulu: ama-fluoride, ama-oxides ngisho nosawoti we-asidi walesi sakhi ayaziwa. Ngaphezu kwalokho, zingama-compounds unomphela ngaphansi kwezimo ezivamile. I-Krypton ilula kune-xenon, yenza ama-fluoride amaningana, njengoba kwenza i-radon esindayo (i-radioactivity yakamuva yenza ucwaningo lube nzima kakhulu). Ngakolunye uhlangothi, ezintathu ezilula kakhulu - i-helium, i-neon ne-argon - azinawo ama-compounds unomphela.

Izinhlanganisela zamakhemikhali zamagesi ahloniphekile anabalingani abahloniphekile zingaqhathaniswa nokungalungi kwakudala. Namuhla, lo mbono awusasebenzi, futhi umuntu akufanele amangale ukuthi ...

Izindiza ezinophephela emhlane, ukusuka kwesobunxele kuya kwesokudla: Lord Rayleigh (John William Strutt, 1842–1919), Sir William Ramsay (1852–1916) kanye noMorris Travers (1872–1961); isithombe esivela eqoqweni le-University College London.

… izicukuthwane ziyasebenza.

I-Helium itholakala ngokuhlukanisa umoya owuketshezi ezitshalweni ze-nitrogen ne-oxygen. Ngakolunye uhlangothi, umthombo we-helium ngokuyinhloko igesi yemvelo, lapho ifinyelela kumaphesenti ambalwa wevolumu (eYurophu, isitshalo esikhulu kunazo zonke sokukhiqiza i-helium sisebenza Unqobile, eGreater Poland Voivodeship). Umsebenzi wabo wokuqala kwakuwukukhanya ngamashubhu akhanyayo. Namuhla, ukukhangisa kwe-neon kusajabulisa iso, kodwa izinto ze-helium nazo ziyisisekelo sezinhlobo ezithile zamalaser, njenge-argon laser esizohlangana nayo kudokotela wamazinyo noma ku-beautician.

Ukuhumusha kweciko kwe-Xenon Ion Probe Dawn eduze ne-asteroid Ceres.

I-chemical passivity yezitshalo ze-helium isetshenziselwa ukwakha umoya ovikela i-oxidation, isibonelo, lapho ushisela izinsimbi noma uvala imikhiqizo yokudla. Izibani ezigcwele i-helium zisebenza ekushiseni okuphezulu (okungukuthi, zikhanya kakhulu) futhi zisebenzisa ugesi ngokuphumelelayo. Ngokuvamile i-argon isetshenziswa engxubeni ye-nitrogen, kuyilapho i-krypton ne-xenon inikeza imiphumela engcono nakakhulu. Ukusetshenziswa kwakamuva kwe-xenon kufana nempahla yokuqhubela phambili ezinjinini zamarokhethi e-ion, esebenza kahle kakhulu kunezinjini zamakhemikhali zamakhemikhali. Amabhaluni wesimo sezulu namabhaluni ezingane agcwele i-helium elula kakhulu. Ihlanganiswe nomoya-mpilo, i-helium isetshenziswa ngabatshuzi ukuze isebenze ekujuleni okukhulu, okusiza ukugwema ukugula kokucindezeleka. Ukusetshenziswa okubaluleke kakhulu kwe-helium ukufeza izinga lokushisa eliphansi elidingekayo ukuze ama-superconductors asebenze.

Ingxube ye-oxygen-helium iqinisekisa ukutshuza okuphephile.