Nge-athomu phakathi neminyaka - ingxenye 1

Ikhulu leminyaka elidlule livame ukubizwa ngokuthi "iminyaka ye-athomu". Ngaleso sikhathi esingekude kakhulu, ekugcineni kwafakazelwa ukuba khona “kwezitini” ezakha umhlaba osizungezile, futhi amandla ayelele kuzo akhululwa. Umqondo we-athomu ngokwawo, nokho, unomlando omude kakhulu, futhi indaba yomlando wolwazi lwesakhiwo sendaba ayikwazi ukuqaliswa ngenye indlela ngaphandle kwamagama abhekisela emandulo.

1. Ucezu lwesithombe sikaRaphael esithi "Isikole Sase-Athens", esiveza uPlato (ngakwesokudla, isazi sefilosofi sinezici zikaLeonardo da Vinci) kanye no-Aristotle.

"Sewumdala..."

… izazi zefilosofi zafinyelela esiphethweni sokuthi yonke imvelo iqukethe izinhlayiya ezincane ezingabonakali. Yiqiniso, ngaleso sikhathi (futhi isikhathi eside ngemva kwalokho) ososayensi abazange babe nethuba lokuhlola ukucabanga kwabo. Kwakuwumzamo nje wokuchaza ukubonwa kwemvelo futhi baphendule umbuzo: "Ingabe izinto zingabola unomphela, noma ingabe kukhona ukuphela kokuhlukana?«

Izimpendulo zanikezwa emibuthanweni yamasiko ehlukahlukene (ikakhulukazi eNdiya yasendulo), kodwa ukuthuthukiswa kwesayensi kwakuthonywe izifundo zezazi zefilosofi zamaGreki. Ezindabeni zamaholide zangonyaka odlule ze-"Young Technician", abafundi bafunde ngomlando wamakhulu eminyaka wokutholwa kwezinto ("Izingozi Ngezinto", MT 7-9/2014), nazo ezaqala eGreece Yasendulo. Emuva ngekhulu lesi-XNUMX BC, ingxenye eyinhloko okwakhiwa kuyo udaba (isici, isici) yayifunwa ezintweni ezihlukahlukene: amanzi (Thales), umoya (Anaximenes), umlilo (Heraclitus) noma umhlaba (Xenophanes).

U-Empedocles wabahlanganisa bonke, wamemezela ukuthi indaba ayiqukethe into eyodwa, kodwa izakhi ezine. U-Aristotle (ngekhulu lokuqala BC) wengeza enye into ekahle - i-ether, egcwalisa indawo yonke, futhi wamemezela ukuthi kungenzeka ukuguqulwa kwezakhi. Ngakolunye uhlangothi, uMhlaba, osenkabeni yendawo yonke, wawubhekwa isibhakabhaka, esasihlala singashintshile. Ngenxa yegunya lika-Aristotle, le nkolelo-mbono yesakhiwo sendaba nayo yonke yayibhekwa njengelungile iminyaka engaphezu kwezinkulungwane ezimbili. Yaba, phakathi kwezinye izinto, isisekelo sokuthuthukiswa kwe-alchemy, futhi ngenxa yalokho i-chemistry ngokwayo (1).

2. I-Bust of Democritus yase-Abdera (460-370 BC)

Nokho, enye i-hypothesis nayo yasungulwa ngokuhambisana. ULeucippus (wekhulu lesi-XNUMX BC) wayekholelwa ukuthi udaba lwakhiwe izinhlayiya ezincane kakhulu ukuhamba endaweni engenalutho. Imibono yesazi sefilosofi yathuthukiswa ngumfundi wakhe - uDemocritus wase-Abdera (c. 460-370 BC) (2). Wabiza “amabhlogo” akha ama-athomu ezinto (ama-atomo esiGreki = awahlukaniseki). Wagomela ngokuthi azihlukaniseki futhi aziguquki, nokuthi inani lazo endaweni yonke lihlala njalo. Ama-athomu ahamba endaweni engenalutho.

Nini ama-athomu zixhunywe (ngesimiso sezingwegwe namehlo) - zonke izinhlobo zemizimba ziyakhiwa, futhi lapho zihlukaniswa komunye nomunye - imizimba iyabhujiswa. UDemocritus wayekholelwa ukuthi kunezinhlobo eziningi zama-athomu, ezihlukile ngokuma nosayizi. Izici zama-athomu zinquma izakhiwo zento, isibonelo, uju olumnandi lwakhiwe ama-athomu abushelelezi, futhi uviniga omuncu wakhiwe ngama-angular; imizimba emhlophe yakha ama-athomu abushelelezi, futhi imizimba emnyama yakha ama-athomu anobuso obumangelengele.

Indlela impahla ehlanganiswe ngayo nayo ithinta izakhiwo zento: kokuqinile, ama-athomu asondelene ngokuqinile, futhi emizimbeni ethambile atholakala ngokukhululekile. I-quintessence yemibono kaDemocritus yisitatimende: "Eqinisweni, kukhona ukungabi nalutho nama-athomu kuphela, konke okunye kuwukukhohlisa."

Emakhulwini eminyaka kamuva, imibono kaDemocritus yathuthukiswa izazi zefilosofi ezilandelanayo, ezinye izikhombo nazo ziyatholakala emibhalweni kaPlato. U-Epicurus - omunye wabalandelayo - waze wakholelwa lokho ama-athomu ahlanganisa izingxenye ezincane nakakhulu (“izinhlayiya eziyisisekelo”). Nokho, inkolelo-mbono ye-athomu yesakhiwo sendaba yalahlekelwa izakhi zika-Aristotle. Isihluthulelo—esasivele ngaleso sikhathi—satholakala kokuhlangenwe nakho. Kuze kube yilapho kukhona amathuluzi okuqinisekisa ukuba khona kwama-athomu, ukuguqulwa kwezakhi kwakubonwa kalula.

Isibonelo: lapho amanzi efudumala (isici esibandayo nesimanzi), umoya watholakala (isitimu esishisayo nesimanzi), futhi inhlabathi yahlala ngaphansi komkhumbi (imvula ebandayo neyomile yezinto ezincibilikisiwe emanzini). Izakhiwo ezingekho - ukufudumala nokomisa - zanikezwa ngomlilo, owashisa umkhumbi.

Ukungaguquguquki nokungashintshi inani lama-athomu nazo zaziphikisana nalokho okwakuphawuliwe, njengoba kwakucatshangwa ukuthi amagciwane aphuma “ngaphandle kweze” kwaze kwaba sekhulwini le-XNUMX. Imibono ye-Democritus ayizange inikeze isisekelo sokuhlolwa kwe-alchemical okuhlobene nokuguqulwa kwezinsimbi. Kwakunzima futhi ukucabanga nokufunda ngezinhlobonhlobo ezingapheli zezinhlobo zama-athomu. Ithiyori eyisisekelo yayibonakala ilula kakhulu futhi ichaza umhlaba ozungezile ngendlela ekholisayo.

3. Isithombe sika-Robert Boyle (1627–1691) ngu-J. Kerseboom.

Ukuwa nokuzalwa kabusha

Emakhulwini eminyaka, ithiyori ye-athomu iye yahluka kwisayensi evamile. Nokho, ekugcineni akazange afe, imibono yakhe yasinda, yafinyelela kososayensi baseYurophu ngendlela yezinguqulo zefilosofi zesi-Arabhu zemibhalo yasendulo. Ngokuthuthuka kolwazi lomuntu, izisekelo zemfundiso ka-Aristotle zaqala ukuwohloka. Uhlelo lwe-heliocentric lukaNicolaus Copernicus, ukubonwa kokuqala kwe-supernovae (uTycho de Brache) okuvela ngaphandle, ukutholakala kwemithetho yokunyakaza kwamaplanethi (Johannes Kepler) kanye nezinyanga zeJupiter (Galileo) kwakusho ukuthi ngeshumi nesithupha kanye ekhulwini leshumi nesikhombisa, abantu bayeka ukuphila ngaphansi kwesibhakabhaka bengashintshile kusukela ekuqaleni kwezwe . Emhlabeni, futhi, kwaba ukuphela kwemibono ka-Aristotle.

Imizamo yamakhulu eminyaka yama-alchemists ayizange ilethe imiphumela elindelekile - bahluleka ukuguqula izinsimbi ezijwayelekile zibe igolide. Ososayensi abaningi ngokwengeziwe bangabaza ubukhona bezakhi ngokwazo, futhi bakhumbula imfundiso kaDemocritus.

4. Ukuhlolwa kwe-1654 ne-Magdeburg hemispheres kwafakazela ukuba khona kwe-vacuum ne-atmospheric pressure (amahhashi angu-16 awakwazi ukuphula ama-hemispheres angomakhelwane okwaphuma kuwo umoya!)

URobert Boyle ngo-1661 wanikeza incazelo esebenzayo yento yekhemikhali njengento engenakuhlukaniswa ibe izingxenye zayo ngokuhlaziywa kwamakhemikhali (3). Wayekholelwa ukuthi izinto ziqukethe izinhlayiya ezincane, eziqinile nezingahlukaniseki ezihlukene ngokuma nangobukhulu. Ehlanganisa, akha ama-molecule ezakhi zamakhemikhali akha izinto.

UBoyle wabiza lezi zinhlayiya ezincane ngokuthi corpuscles, noma "corpuscles" (isinciphiso segama lesiLatini elithi corpus = body). Imibono kaBoyle ngokungangabazeki yathonywa ukusungulwa kwepompo ye-vacuum (Otto von Guericke, 1650) kanye nokuthuthukiswa kwamaphampu e-piston okucindezela umoya. Ukuba khona kwe-vacuum kanye nethuba lokushintsha ibanga (ngenxa yokucindezelwa) phakathi kwezinhlayiya zomoya kufakazela imfundiso ye-Democritus (4).

Usosayensi omkhulu kunabo bonke ngaleso sikhathi, uSir Isaac Newton, naye wayengusosayensi we-athomu. (5). Ngokusekelwe emibonweni kaBoyle, ubeke phambili inkoleloze mayelana nokuhlanganiswa komzimba ekwakhekeni okukhulu. Esikhundleni sesimiso sasendulo sama-eyelets nezingwegwe, ukubopha kwabo kwaba - kanjani enye - ngamandla adonsela phansi.

5. Isithombe sikaSir Isaac Newton (1642-1727), kaG. Kneller.

Ngakho, uNewton wahlanganisa ukusebenzisana endaweni yonke - amandla owodwa alawula kokubili ukunyakaza kwamaplanethi kanye nokwakheka kwezingxenye ezincane kakhulu zento. Usosayensi wayekholelwa ukuthi ukukhanya kubuye kube nama-corpuscles.

Namuhla siyazi ukuthi "wayelungile" - ukusebenzisana okuningi phakathi kwemisebe nendaba kuchazwa ukuhamba kwama-photons.

I-Chemistry iqala ukusebenza

Kuze kube sekupheleni kwekhulu lesi-XNUMX, ama-athomu ayeyilungelo lezazi zefiziksi. Kodwa-ke, kwakuyinguquko yamakhemikhali eyaqalwa u-Antoine Lavoisier eyenza umqondo wesakhiwo esiyimbudumbudu sendaba wamukelwe ngokuvamile.

Ukutholakala kwesakhiwo esiyinkimbinkimbi sezakhi zasendulo - amanzi nomoya - ekugcineni kwawuphikisa umbono ka-Aristotle. Ekupheleni kwekhulu le-XNUMX, umthetho wokongiwa kwenqwaba kanye nenkolelo yokuthi akunakwenzeka ukuguqulwa kwezakhi nakho akuzange kubangele ukuphikisa. Izikali seziphenduke imishini evamile elabhorethri yamakhemikhali.

6. UJohn Dalton (1766-1844)

Ngenxa yokusetshenziswa kwayo, kwaphawulwa ukuthi izakhi zihlangana komunye nomunye, zakha ama-chemical compounds athile ngobuningi obuqhubekayo (kungakhathaliseki ukuthi imvelaphi yabo - yemvelo noma etholwe ngokwenziwa - kanye nendlela yokuhlanganisa).

Lokhu kuqaphela sekuchazeke kalula uma sithatha ngokuthi udaba luqukethe izingxenye ezingahlukaniseki ezakha ingqikithi eyodwa. ama-athomu. Umqambi wemfundiso yesimanje ye-athomu, uJohn Dalton (1766-1844) (6), walandela le ndlela. Usosayensi ngo-1808 wathi:

1. Ama-athomu awabhubhi futhi awaguquki (lokhu, vele, kwasusa amathuba okuguqulwa kwe-alchemical).
2. Yonke into yenziwe ngama-athomu angahlukaniseki.
3. Wonke ama-athomu e-elementi enikeziwe ayafana, okungukuthi, anomumo ofanayo, ubukhulu kanye nezakhiwo. Nokho, izakhi ezihlukahlukene zakhiwa ama-athomu ahlukene.
4. Ekuphenduleni kwamakhemikhali, kuphela indlela yokujoyina ama-athomu eshintshayo, lapho ama-molecule wamakhemikhali amakhemikhali akhiwa khona - ngezilinganiso ezithile (7).

Okunye okutholakele, futhi okusekelwe ekuhloleni inkambo yezinguquko zamakhemikhali, kwakuyinkolelo-mbono yesazi sefilosofi sase-Italy u-Amadeo Avogadro. Usosayensi wafinyelela esiphethweni sokuthi amavolumu alinganayo amagesi ngaphansi kwezimo ezifanayo (ingcindezi kanye nezinga lokushisa) aqukethe inani elifanayo lama-molecule. Lokhu kutholakala kwenze kwaba nokwenzeka ukusungula amafomula enhlanganisela yamakhemikhali amaningi futhi kunqunywe uquqaba ama-athomu.

7. Izimpawu ze-athomu ezisetshenziswa uDalton (Isistimu Entsha Yefilosofi Yamakhemikhali, 1808)

8. Izinto eziqinile zikaPlato - izimpawu zama-athomu "zezakhi" zasendulo (i-Wikipedia, umbhali: uMaxim Pe)

Ukusika izikhathi ezingaki?

Ukuvela komqondo we-athomu kwakuhlotshaniswa nombuzo othi: "Ingabe kukhona ukuphela kokuhlukaniswa kwendaba?". Ngokwesibonelo, ake sithathe i-apula elinobubanzi obungu-10 cm nombese bese siqala ukusika isithelo. Okokuqala, ngesigamu, bese isigamu se-apula sibe izingxenye ezimbili ezengeziwe (ezihambisana nokusikwa kwangaphambilini), njll. Ngemva kwezikhathi ezimbalwa, yiqiniso, sizoqeda, kodwa akukho lutho olusivimbela ukuba siqhubeke nokuhlola emcabangweni we-athomu eyodwa? Inkulungwane, isigidi, mhlawumbe ngaphezulu?

Ngemva kokudla i-apula elisikiwe (elimnandi!), Ake siqale izibalo (labo abazi umqondo wokuqhubeka kwejometri bazoba nenkinga encane). Isigaba sokuqala sizosinika ingxenye yesithelo enobukhulu obungu-5 cm, ukusika okulandelayo kuzosinika ucezu olunobukhulu obungu-2,5 cm, njll ... 10 abashaywayo! Ngakho-ke, "indlela" eya emhlabeni wama-athomu ayinde.

*) Sebenzisa ummese onensingo ezacile ngokungenamkhawulo. Eqinisweni, into enjalo ayikho, kodwa njengoba u-Albert Einstein ezifundweni zakhe abheka izitimela ezihamba ngesivinini sokukhanya, sivunyelwe futhi - ngenhloso yokuhlola umcabango - ukwenza umcabango ongenhla.

Ama-athomu kaPlato

U-Plato, omunye wezingqondo ezinkulu zasendulo, wachaza ama-athomu okwakuzokwakhiwa izakhi engxoxweni ye-Timachos. Lokhu kwakheka kwakunohlobo lwe-polyhedra evamile (okuqinile kukaPlato). Ngakho-ke, i-tetrahedron yayiyi-athomu yomlilo (njengencane futhi iguquguquka kakhulu), i-octahedron kwakuyi-athomu yomoya, futhi i-icosahedron yayiyi-athomu yamanzi (zonke izinto eziqinile zinezindonga zonxantathu abalinganayo). I-cube yezikwele iyi-athomu yomhlaba, futhi i-dodecahedron yamapentagoni iyi-athomu yento ekahle - i-ether yasezulwini (8).