Umlando Wezinto Eziqanjiwe - I-Nanotechnology

Cishe cishe ngo-600 BC. abantu babekhiqiza izakhiwo ze-nanotype, okungukuthi imicu ye-cementite yensimbi, ebizwa ngokuthi i-Wootz. Lokhu kwenzeka eNdiya, futhi lokhu kungabhekwa njengesiqalo somlando we-nanotechnology.

VI-XV s. Odayi abasetshenziswa phakathi nalesi sikhathi ukudweba amafasitela anengilazi enemibala basebenzisa ama-nanoparticles e-chloride egolide, ama-chloride ezinye izinsimbi, kanye nama-oxide ensimbi.

IX-XVII Ezindaweni eziningi eYurophu, "ama-glitters" nezinye izinto kukhiqizwa ukuze kukhanye ku-ceramics neminye imikhiqizo. Zaziqukethe ama-nanoparticles ensimbi, ngokuvamile isiliva noma ithusi.

XIII-xviii w. "Insimbi yaseDamaseku" eyakhiqizwa kula makhulu eminyaka, lapho kwenziwa khona izikhali ezimhlophe ezidumile emhlabeni wonke, iqukethe ama-carbon nanotubes nama-cementite nanofibers.

1857 UMichael Faraday uthola igolide eliyi-colloidal elinombala we-ruby, isici sama-nanoparticles egolide.

1931 UMax Knoll no-Ernst Ruska bakhe isibonakhulu se-electron e-Berlin, idivayisi yokuqala yokubona ukwakheka kwama-nanoparticles ezingeni le-athomu. Lapho amandla ama-electron emakhulu, iba mfushane ubude bawo beza kanye nokucaca okukhulu kwesibonakhulu. Isampula isendaweni engenalutho futhi evamise ukumbozwa ngefilimu yensimbi. I-electron beam idlula into yokuhlola bese ingena kuma-detectors. Ngokusekelwe kumasiginali akaliwe, izinto zikagesi ziphinda zenze isithombe sesampula yokuhlola.

1936 U-Erwin Müller, osebenza e-Siemens Laboratories, usungula isibonakhulu se-field emission, uhlobo olulula lwesibonakhulu se-electron emission. Lesi sibonakhulu sisebenzisa inkambu kagesi enamandla ukuze kukhishwe insimu nokuthwebula izithombe.

1950 UVictor La Mer noRobert Dinegar badala izisekelo zethiyori zesu lokuthola izinto ze-monodisperse colloidal. Lokhu kwavumela ukukhiqizwa kwezinhlobo ezikhethekile zephepha, amapende namafilimu amancane esikalini sezimboni.

1956 U-Arthur von Hippel we-Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) waqamba igama elithi "i-molecular engineering".

1959 URichard Feynman ukhuluma ngokuthi "Kunendawo eningi ezansi." Eqala ngokucabanga ukuthi yini eyayizodingeka ukuze i-Encyclopædia Britannica enemiqulu engu-24 ifakwe esihlokweni sikaphini, wethula umqondo wokwenza izinto ezincane kanye nethuba lokusebenzisa ubuchwepheshe obungasebenza ezingeni le-nanometer. Kulesi senzakalo, wasungula imiklomelo emibili (okuthiwa imiklomelo ye-Feynman) yempumelelo kule ndawo - inkulungwane yamadola ngayinye.

1960 Ukukhokhwa komklomelo wokuqala kwamdumaza uFeynman. Wayecabanga ukuthi kwakuzodingeka intuthuko kwezobuchwepheshe ukuze afinyelele imigomo yakhe, kodwa ngaleso sikhathi wawabukela phansi amandla e-microelectronics. Ophumelele kwakungunjiniyela oneminyaka engu-35 ubudala uWilliam H. McLellan. Wakha injini enesisindo esingu-250 micrograms, enamandla angu-1 mW.

1968 U-Alfred Y. Cho noJohn Arthur bathuthukisa indlela ye-epitaxy. Ivumela ukwakheka kwezingqimba ze-monoatomic ezingaphezulu kusetshenziswa ubuchwepheshe be-semiconductor - ukukhula kwezingqimba ezintsha zekristalu eyodwa ku-substrate yekristalu ekhona, okuphindaphinda ukwakheka kwe-crystal substrate lattice. Ukwehluka kwe-epitaxy yi-epitaxy yezinhlanganisela zamangqamuzana, okwenza kube nokwenzeka ukufaka izendlalelo zekristalu enogqinsi lwendlalelo eyodwa ye-athomu. Le ndlela isetshenziswa ekukhiqizeni amachashazi e-quantum nalokho okubizwa ngokuthi izendlalelo ezincane.

1974 Ukwethulwa kwegama elithi "nanotechnology". Yaqala ukusetshenziswa umcwaningi weNyuvesi yaseTokyo uNorio Taniguchi engqungqutheleni yesayensi. Incazelo yefiziksi yaseJapane isasetshenziswa kuze kube namuhla futhi izwakala kanje: “I-Nanotechnology iwukukhiqiza usebenzisa ubuchwepheshe obuvumela ukuzuza ukunemba okuphezulu kakhulu nosayizi abancane kakhulu, i.e. ukunemba kwe-oda le-1 nm.

Ukubona ngeso lengqondo ukwehla kwe-quantum

Ama-80s nama-90s Isikhathi sokuthuthukiswa okusheshayo kobuchwepheshe be-lithographic kanye nokukhiqizwa kwezingqimba ze-ultrathin zamakristalu. Eyokuqala, i-MOCVD(), iyindlela yokufaka izendlalelo phezu kwezinto kusetshenziswa izinhlanganisela ze-gaseous organometallic. Lena enye yezindlela ze-epitaxial, yingakho igama layo elihlukile - MOSFE (). Indlela yesibili, i-MBE, yenza kube nokwenzeka ukufaka izendlalelo ze-nanometer ezizacile kakhulu ngokwakheka kwamakhemikhali okuchazwe ngokunembile kanye nokusabalalisa okunembile kwephrofayili yokugxilisa ukungcola. Lokhu kungenzeka ngenxa yokuthi izingxenye zongqimba zinikezwa ku-substrate ngemishayo ehlukene yamangqamuzana.

1981 U-Gerd Binnig no-Heinrich Rohrer bakha isibonakhulu sokuskena. Ngokusebenzisa amandla okusebenzelana kwe-interatomic, kukuvumela ukuthi uthole isithombe sobuso ngokulungiswa kokuhleleka kosayizi we-athomu eyodwa, ngokudlula i-blade ngaphezulu noma ngaphansi kobuso besampula. Ngo-1989, idivayisi yasetshenziswa ukuphatha ama-athomu ngamanye. UBinnig noRohrer baklonyeliswa ngomklomelo weNobel kuPhysics ngo-1986.

1985 ULouis Brus weBell Labs uthola ama-colloidal semiconductor nanocrystals (amachashazi e-quantum). Achazwa njengendawo encane yesikhala eboshwe ngobukhulu obuthathu yizithiyo ezingase zibe khona lapho kungena inhlayiya enobude begagasi obuqhathaniswa nosayizi wechashazi.

Ikhava yencwadi ethi Engines of Creation: The Coming Era of Nanotechnology ka-C. Eric Drexler

1985 U-Robert Floyd Curl, Jr., u-Harold Walter Kroto, no-Richard Erret Smalley bathola ama-fullerenes, ama-molecule akhiwe inani elilinganayo lama-athomu ekhabhoni (kusuka ku-28 kuya cishe ku-1500) akha umzimba ongenalutho oluvaliwe. Amakhemikhali e-fulerenes ngezindlela eziningi afana nalawo ama-hydrocarbon anephunga elimnandi. I-Fullerene C60, noma i-buckminsterfullerene, njengamanye ama-fullerenes, iwuhlobo lwe-carbon allotropic.

1986-1992 C. Eric Drexler ushicilela izincwadi ezimbili ezibalulekile zefuturology ezenza i-nanotechnology yaziwe. Eyokuqala, eyakhishwa ngo-1986, ibizwa nge-Engines of Creation: The Coming Era of Nanotechnology. Ubikezela, phakathi kokunye, ukuthi ubuchwepheshe besikhathi esizayo buzokwazi ukukhohlisa ama-athomu ngamanye ngendlela elawulwayo. Ngo-1992, washicilela i-Nanosystems: Molecular Hardware, Manufacturing, kanye ne-Computational Idea, yona eyabikezela ukuthi ama-nanomachine angakwazi ukuzikhiqiza.

1989 UDonald M. Aigler we-IBM ubeka igama elithi "IBM" - elenziwe ngama-athomu angama-xenon angama-35 - endaweni eyi-nickel.

1991 U-Sumio Iijima we-NEC e-Tsukuba, e-Japan, uthola ama-carbon nanotubes, izakhiwo eziyisilinda ezingenalutho. Kuze kube manje, i-carbon nanotubes eyaziwa kakhulu, izindonga zazo zenziwe nge-graphene egoqwe. Kukhona futhi ama-non-carbon nanotubes nama-DNA nanotubes. Ama-thinnest carbon nanotubes aku-oda le-nanometer eyodwa ububanzi futhi angaba izikhathi eziyizigidi ubude. Zinamandla amangalisayo okuqina kanye nezakhiwo zikagesi eziyingqayizivele, futhi zingamakhondaktha okushisa amahle kakhulu. Lezi zakhiwo zizenza izinto ezithembisayo zokusetshenziswa ku-nanotechnology, electronics, optics, kanye nesayensi yezinto ezibonakalayo.

1993 U-Warren Robinett waseNyuvesi yaseNyakatho Carolina kanye no-R. Stanley Williams we-UCLA bakha isistimu yento engekho ngokoqobo exhunywe kusibonakhulu sokuskena esivumela umsebenzisi ukuthi abone futhi athinte ama-athomu.

1998 Iqembu lika-Cees Dekker e-Delft University of Technology e-Netherlands lakha i-transistor esebenzisa ama-carbon nanotubes. Njengamanje, ososayensi bazama ukusebenzisa izakhiwo eziyingqayizivele ze-carbon nanotubes ukukhiqiza ama-electronics angcono futhi asheshayo asebenzisa ugesi omncane. Lokhu kwanqunywa yizici ezimbalwa, ezinye zazo ezanqotshwa kancane kancane, okwathi ngo-2016 kwaholela abacwaningi eNyuvesi yaseWisconsin-Madison ukuthi bakhe i-carbon transistor enemingcele engcono kunama-silicon prototypes angcono kakhulu. Ucwaningo luka-Michael Arnold kanye no-Padma Gopalan luholele ekwakhiweni kwe-carbon nanotube transistor ekwazi ukuthwala kabili yamanje yesimbangi sayo se-silicon.

2003 AbakwaSamsung bagunyaza ubuchwepheshe obuthuthukisiwe obususelwe esenzweni sama-ion esiliva amancane ukuze kubulawe amagciwane, isikhunta kanye nezinhlobo ezingaphezu kwamakhulu ayisithupha zamabhaktheriya futhi kuvinjwe ukusabalala kwawo. Izinhlayiya zesiliva zethulwe ezinhlelweni zokuhlunga ezibaluleke kakhulu kumshini wokuhlanza wenkampani - zonke izihlungi kanye nomqoqi wothuli noma isikhwama.

2004 I-British Royal Society kanye neRoyal Academy of Engineering bashicilela umbiko othi "Nanoscience and Nanotechnology: Opportunities and Uncertainties", ifuna ucwaningo ngezingozi ezingase zibe khona ze-nanotechnology kwezempilo, imvelo kanye nomphakathi, kucatshangelwa izici zokuziphatha nezomthetho.

Imodeli yeNanomotor kumasondo e-fulerene

2006 I-James Tour, ihlangene nethimba lososayensi base-Rice University, yakha i-"van" encane encane nge-oligo (phenyleneethynylene) molecule, ama-axles ayo enziwe ngama-athomu e-aluminium, namasondo enziwe nge-C60 fullerenes. I-nanovehicle yahamba phezu komhlaba, ehlanganisa ama-athomu egolide, ngaphansi kwethonya lokwanda kwezinga lokushisa, ngenxa yokujikeleza kwe-fulerene "amasondo". Ngaphezulu kwezinga lokushisa elingu-300 ° C, lashesha kakhulu kangangokuthi osokhemisi abasakwazi ukuyilandela ...

2007 Ochwepheshe be-nanotechnology bahlanganisa lonke “iTestamente Elidala” lamaJuda endaweni engu-0,5 mm kuphela.² isicwecwana se-silicon enziwe ngegolide. Umbhalo waqoshwa ngokuqondisa umfudlana ogxilile wamayoni e-gallium epuletini.

2009-2010 U-Nadrian Seaman kanye nozakwabo eNyuvesi yaseNew York bakha uchungechunge lwama-nanomounts afana ne-DNA lapho izinhlaka zokwenziwa ze-DNA zingahlelwa ukuze "zikhiqize" ezinye izakhiwo ezinobunjwa nezakhiwo ezifiselekayo.

2013 Ososayensi be-IBM badala ifilimu epopayi engabukwa kuphela ngemva kokukhuliswa izikhathi eziyizigidi ezingu-100. Ibizwa ngokuthi "Umfana Ne-athomu Yakhe" futhi idwetshwa ngamachashazi e-diatomic ingxenye yesigidi semitha ngosayizi, okungama-molecule e-carbon monoxide. Ikhathuni libonisa umfana oqale adlale ngebhola bese egxumela ku-trampoline. Enye yama- molecule nayo idlala indima yebhola. Zonke izenzo zenzeka endaweni yethusi, futhi ubukhulu befreyimu ngayinye yefilimu abudluli amashumi amaningana ama-nanometers.

2014 Ososayensi base-ETH University of Technology e-Zurich baphumelele ukwakha ulwelwesi olunezimbotshana olungaphansi kwe-nanometer eyodwa. Ubukhulu bezinto ezitholakala ngokukhohlisa kwe-nanotechnological buyi-100 XNUMX. izikhathi ezincane kunezoboya bomuntu. Ngokwamalungu eqembu lababhali, lokhu kuyingxenye ye-thinnest ene-porous engatholakala futhi engenzeka ngokuvamile. Iqukethe izendlalelo ezimbili zesakhiwo se-graphene esinezinhlangothi ezimbili. I-membrane iyakwazi ukungena, kodwa kuphela ezinhlayiyeni ezincane, ezinciphisa noma zibambe ngokuphelele izinhlayiya ezinkulu.

2015 Kudalwa iphampu yamangqamuzana, ithuluzi le-nanoscale elidlulisela amandla lisuka kwelinye i-molecule liye kwelinye, lilingisa izinqubo zemvelo. Isakhiwo saklanywa abacwaningi base-Weinberg Northwestern College of Arts and Sciences. Umshini ufana nezinqubo zebhayoloji kumaprotheni. Kulindeleke ukuthi ubuchwepheshe obunjalo buzothola ukusetshenziswa ikakhulukazi emkhakheni we-biotechnology nemithi, isibonelo, emisipha yokwenziwa.

2016 Ngokombhalo kujenali yesayensi i-Nature Nanotechnology, abacwaningi base-Dutch Technical University Delft benze imidiya yokugcina ye-athomu eyodwa. Indlela entsha kufanele inikeze ukuminyana kwesitoreji okuphindwe izikhathi ezingamakhulu amahlanu kunanoma ibuphi ubuchwepheshe obusetshenziswa njengamanje. Ababhali bayaqaphela ukuthi imiphumela engcono nakakhulu ingafinyelelwa ngokusebenzisa imodeli ye-three-dimensional yendawo yezinhlayiya ezisemkhathini.

Ukuhlukaniswa kwama-nanotechnologies nama-nanomaterials

1. Izakhiwo ze-Nanotechnological zihlanganisa:

• imithombo ye-quantum, izintambo namachashazi, i.e. izakhiwo ezihlukahlukene ezihlanganisa isici esilandelayo - umkhawulo wendawo wezinhlayiya endaweni ethile ngokusebenzisa izithiyo ezingaba khona;
• amapulasitiki, isakhiwo esilawulwa ezingeni lama-molecule ngamanye, ngenxa yokuthi kungenzeka, isibonelo, ukuthola izinto ezinezici ezingakaze zibonwe ngaphambili;
• imicu yokwenziwa - izinto ezinesakhiwo samangqamuzana esinembe kakhulu, esiphinde sihlukaniswe yizakhiwo ezingavamile zemishini;
• ama-nanotubes, izakhiwo ze-supramolecular ngendlela yamasilinda angenalutho. Kuze kube manje, i-carbon nanotubes eyaziwa kakhulu, izindonga zazo zenziwe nge-graphene egoqiwe (izingqimba ze-monatomic graphite). Kukhona futhi ama-non-carbon nanotubes (isibonelo, asuka ku-tungsten sulfide) naku-DNA;
• izinto ezichotshoziwe ngendlela yothuli, izinhlamvu zazo, isibonelo, ukuqoqwa kwama-athomu ensimbi. Isiliva () enezici ezinamandla zokulwa namagciwane isetshenziswa kabanzi kuleli fomu;
• nanowires (isibonelo, isiliva noma ithusi);
• izakhi ezakhiwe kusetshenziswa i-electron lithography nezinye izindlela ze-nanolithography;
• fullerenes;
• i-graphene nezinye izinto ezinezinhlangothi ezimbili (i-borophene, i-graphene, i-hexagonal boron nitride, i-silicene, i-germanene, i-molybdenum sulfide);
• izinto ezihlanganisiwe eziqiniswe ngama-nanoparticles.

Indawo ye-Nanolithographic

2. Ukuhlukaniswa kwe-nanotechnologies ku-systematics yesayensi, eyathuthukiswa ngo-2004 yi-Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD):

• ama-nanomaterials (ukukhiqiza kanye nezakhiwo);
• ama-nanoprocesses (izinhlelo zokusebenza ze-nanoscale - i-biomaterials ingeye-industrial biotechnology).

3. Ama-Nanomatadium yizo zonke izinto lapho kunezakhiwo ezivamile ezingeni lamangqamuzana, i.e. angeqi ama-nanometer ayi-100.

Lo mkhawulo ungase ubhekisele kusayizi wezizinda njengeyunithi eyisisekelo ye-microstructure, noma ukujiya kwezingqimba ezitholiwe noma ezifakwe ku-substrate. Empeleni, umkhawulo ongezansi oshiwo kuma-nanomaterials uhlukile ezintweni ezinezakhiwo ezihlukile zokusebenza - uhlotshaniswa kakhulu nokubukeka kwezakhiwo ezithile lapho weqiwe. Ngokunciphisa usayizi wezakhiwo ezi-odiwe zezinto zokwakha, kungenzeka ukuthi uthuthukise kakhulu i-physicochemical yabo, i-mechanical, kanye nezinye izakhiwo.

I-Nanomatadium ingahlukaniswa ngamaqembu amane alandelayo:

• i-zero-dimensional (dot nanomaterials) - isibonelo, amachashazi e-quantum, ama-nanoparticles esiliva;
• enohlangothi olulodwa - isibonelo, insimbi noma i-semiconductor nanowires, nanorods, polymeric nanofibers;
• okubili-dimensional - isibonelo, izingqimba ze-nanometer zesigaba esisodwa noma uhlobo lwezigaba eziningi, i-graphene nezinye izinto ezinogqinsi lwe-athomu eyodwa;
• ezintathu ntathu (noma i-nanocrystalline) - iqukethe izizinda ze-crystalline kanye nokuqoqwa kwezigaba ezinobukhulu bokuhleleka kwama-nanometers noma izinhlanganisela eziqiniswe ngama-nanoparticles.